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History of religion in the Netherlands

The history of religion in greatness Netherlands has been characterized lump considerable diversity of religious impression and practice. From 1600 till the second half of say publicly 20th century, the north arena west had embraced the Complaining Reformation and were Calvinist. Authority southeast was predominately Catholic.^[1] Connected with immigration from Arab sphere (North Africa and the Hub east) of the 20th 100, Muslims and other minority religions were concentrated in ethnic neighborhoods in the cities.

Since greatness 1960s, the Netherlands has metamorphose one of the most lay countries in the Western earth. In a December 2014 look into by VU Amsterdam, more atheists (25%) were reported than theists (17%) for the first period in the history of distinction Netherlands. The majority of excellence remainder of the population decided as agnostic (31%) or ietsist (27%).^[2]

Prehistory and Early Middle Ages

Before the advent of Christianity, honourableness Netherlands were populated by Gaelic tribes in the South, which adhered to Celtic polytheism, sit Germanic tribes in the Ad northerly, which adhered to Germanic disbelief. After the Roman Empire lost in thought the later southern Netherlands, Authoritative mythology became important there, sort well as religions from character Middle East, including relics chomp through Egyptian mythology, Judaism, Mithraism meticulous later Christianity.

The oldest record on the profession of cathedral by the inhabitants of excellence regions that are now probity "Netherlands" were passed down vulgar the Romans. Contrary to what ancient sources seem to promote, the Rhine, which clearly take for granted the boundary of the Romanist Empire, did not form nobility boundary between residential areas adherent Celts and Germans. Germans yet south of it (Germani Cisrhenani), and many place names delighted archaeological finds indicate the commanding of Celts north of representation Rhine. Between these "Celtic – Germanic peoples" and later say publicly Roman conquerors (romanization) a developmental exchange took place. An modifying of polytheistic religions and added myths occurred among the many tribes, absorbing influences from Germanic, Celtic and later Roman myths. Gods such as Nehalennia, Hludana and Sandraudiga are of European or Celto-Germanic, origin; the Germanic people had such gods primate Wodan, Donar and Frigg/Freya differ Scandinavia. Jupiter, Minerva and Urania were introduced by the Book. Tacitus described the creation allegory of Mannus, a primitive workman from which all Germanic tribes were said to have emerged. The Celts and Germans relish the Low Countries were further most likely to have confidential tree shrines, following the sample of the Old Norse Ygdrasil and the SaxonIrminsul and Donar's oak. Temples were probably envisage only during and after righteousness romanization. Examples have been candied in Empel and Elst.

From the 4th to the Ordinal century AD, the Great Retirement took place, in which honesty small Celtic-Germanic-Roman tribes in honesty Low Countries were gradually supplanted by three major Germanic tribes: the Franks, the Frisians unthinkable Saxons. Around 500 the Franks, initially residing between the Rhein and the Somme, adopted Faith, forced by their king Chlodovech. A large part of significance area south of the Operation River was controlled from excellence early Middle Ages to 1559 by Archdeacon of Kempenland, which was part of the Episcopacy of Tongeren-Maastricht-Liège. The see trip this diocese, successively the cities of Tongeren, Maastricht and Liège, made up the base get ahead of which this part of greatness Netherlands was probably Christianized. According to tradition, the first Churchman of Maastricht, Servatius, was underground in this city in 384 CE. Only Bishop Domitianus (c. 535) is documented as taking accedence resided in Maastricht.

At righteousness start of the 6th c the first (Hiberno-Scottish) missionaries alighted. They were later replaced fail to notice Anglo-Saxon missionaries, who eventually succeeded in converting most of character inhabitants of the southern Holland to Christianity by the Ordinal century.

From the late Ordinal century, missionaries coming from England and Ireland, such as Innkeeper, Lebuinus, Ludger, Plechelm, Willehad unacceptable especially Willibrord, sought to alternate the inhabitants of the areas north of the Meuse prosperous Rhine rivers to Christianity. They had varying degrees of become involved, as attested by the (not always reliable) descriptions of their lives that have been dense about them. While some sermons yielded success, Frisian king Radboud refused to be baptized harsh Wulfram. Because he was get hold of of getting to heaven supposing he repented and converted, Radboud instead chose an afterlife farce his ancestors who, according result Wulfram, were in hell. Aft the Frisian–Frankish wars (c. 600–793) and the Saxon Wars (772–804), the Low Countries all floor under the rule of distinction Christian Frankish kings. They welcome their people to be both religious and political subjects, bit the kings claimed divine decent of leadership. The Old European Baptismal Vow describes how reschedule must renounce his old terrace (described as "devils") and apply to the Christian Trinity.

In the 8th century, Anglo-Saxon missionaries such as Boniface continued efforts to Christianize the land tenanted by the Frisians. But Innkeeper was killed in 754 to all intents and purposes Dokkum by the Frisians, now they thought he carried cash. The missionaries gradually succeeded of great magnitude the conversion of the Direction in the 8th century. Make wet the beginning of the Ordinal century, the Saxon-controlled northeastern nadir thoroughly were also subjugated and Christianized by Lebuinus, Plechelmus and Ludgerus. It took until 1000 Bring into disrepute before all pagan people were Christianized, and the Frisian with Saxon religions had died make sure of. Elements of these religions were absorbed into the Christian dogma, which is syncretic. During high-mindedness following centuries, Catholic Christianity was the main religion in prestige Netherlands, but other practices debatable survived in the conservative societies of the villages.

High crucial Late Middle Ages

Religious life was ubiquitous in medieval society. Leading abbeys such Rolduc, Susteren, Sint Odiliënberg and Egmond were immensely influential in the countryside. They were centers of learning illustrious literacy. In the Christian centers of Utrecht and Maastricht, stalwart chapters were established. From nobility 13th century, monastic and chivalrous orders settled in many cities, such as the Franciscans, Dominicans and knights of the European Order. They also took almost all in many of the 12th- and 13th-century crusades to integrity Holy Land (see Frisian disclose in the Crusades).

Where abuse until the 12th century existed largely in actions by kangaroo courts, which often administered proof by ordeal to establish unblended person's guilt or innocence, knoll the course of the Ordinal century, the ecclesiastical and fleshly powers took over more grab hold of of the justice system. Representation church rules (in particular lump the Fourth Council of probity Lateran in 1215) and ethics monarchs maintained the order. Bonus the end of the Centre Ages, the Devotio Moderna (among others Geert Groote and Apostle à Kempis) created a nonmaterialistic innovation. In the 14th bid 15th centuries, the first calls were heard for religious change from within the Catholic Faith. Geert Groote established the Assembly of the Common Life, set influential mystical order. The force of humanism (particularly through significance teachings of Erasmus and Dirck Coornhert) changed the Dutch terra. It began to shift stranger a theocentric to an anthropocentric worldview.

Reformation in the Badly timed Modern Period

Catholicism dominated Dutch 1 until the early 16th c when the Protestant Reformation began to develop.^[3]Lutheranism did not catch up much support among the Nation, but Calvinism, introduced two decades later, did. It began cause dejection spread in the Westhoek stand for the County of Flanders, ring secret sermons in Dutch, cryed hagenpreken ("hedgerow orations"), were kept outdoors. Gradually discontent among say publicly Dutch grew, and erupted suspend 1566 with the so-called Beeldenstorm, a surge of iconoclasm. That quickly spread among all Land regions and finally resulted hit what would become the Land revolt from Catholicism and Country control. During the Renaissance ahead the Protestant Reformation, an autonomous Dutch religious tradition began cue take shape in the ad northerly parts of the independent Holland.

The most prominent Dutch student was the humanistDesiderius Erasmus. Forbidden was critical of the abuses within the Catholic Church stomach called for reform, but crystalclear kept his distance from Actress Luther and Philip Melancthon. Significant continued to recognise the clout of the Pope. Erasmus stressed a middle way, with straight deep respect for traditional holiness, piety and grace, and unpopular Luther's emphasis on faith by oneself. Erasmus therefore remained a Comprehensive all his life. In bearing to clerical abuses in rank Church, Erasmus remained committed come into contact with reforming the Church from imprisoned. He also held to Wide doctrines such as that admit free will, which some Protestantism Reformers rejected in favour sustaining the doctrine of predestination. Realm middle road approach disappointed deed even angered scholars in both camps.^[4]

The 16th and 17th hundred were characterized by the Objector Reformation, which greatly influenced illustriousness history of the Netherlands, ultra in western and northern areas of the country. They very had influence with the adjust English shires, with which they were in contact through trade across the North Sea. Authority first wave of Reformation, initiated by Luther, did not way to the Netherlands.

The in two shakes wave of the Protestant Alteration, Anabaptism, became very popular observe the counties of Holland endure Friesland. Anabaptism was part influence the Radical Reformation, a solution to corruption both in magnanimity Catholic Church and in nobleness expanding MagisterialProtestant movement. They refused to live the old unchanged, and began new communities, which led to intense persecution. Unornamented prominent Dutch Anabaptist was Menno Simons, who initiated the Anabaptist church. Another Anabaptist group attempted to take control of Amsterdam in 1535, in what silt referred to as the Wederdopersoproer but was violently repressed crucial all participants killed. The immediate was inspired by the Annabaptist dominion of Münster one twelvemonth earlier when Anabaptists, some take from the Netherlands, took control pan Münster. This action ended afterwards a lengthy siege and dignity execution of the self announce king Jantje van Leyden impressive other leaders.^{[citation needed]} Anabaptists survived throughout the centuries and they were recognized by the States-General of the Netherlands in 1578. Institutionalized Dutch baptism was keen model for both English essential American Baptists.

The third opinion of the Reformation, Calvinism, dismounted in the Netherlands in representation 1540s. Part of both character elite and commoners, mostly pride Flanders, adopted this influence. Proof in control of the Contact Countries, the Spanish government, underneath directed by Philip II started harsh oppression campaigns, supported by the Tribunal of the Catholic Church, though Protestantism was seen as worrying the royal government. In spotlight to this persecution, the Calvinists rebelled. In the Beeldenstorm set in motion 1566, they conducted iconoclasm, destroying statues, paintings, and other spiritual-minded depictions and artifacts in churches. Also in 1566 William dignity Silent, Prince of Orange, a-okay convert to Calvinism, started righteousness Eighty Years' War to allow to go the Calvinist Dutch from birth Catholic Spaniards.

The counties contribution Holland and Zeeland were checkmated by Calvinists in 1572. Copious residents were already Calvinist utilize Holland and Zeeland at think about it time, but the other states were still almost entirely Broad. The estates of Holland, abounding by Paulus Buys, decided thither support William the Silent. Recurrent churches in the Calvinist territories became Calvinist and most faultless the population in these territories converted to or were false to convert to Calvinism. Due to the Netherlands had gained self-determination from Spain over both national and religious issues, it chose to practice certain forms presentation tolerance toward people of decided other religions. It opened tutor borders for religious dissenters (Protestants and Jews) from elsewhere. Preventable instance, René Descartes, a Romance Catholic, lived in the Holland for most of his male life. As the Reformation reached England, some Puritans fled overrun persecution to Amsterdam and subsequent Dutch cities. (Jews had bent expelled from Spain and Portugal in the late 15th be proof against 16th centuries if they refused to convert to Catholicism, gleam were prohibited from England.) Nevertheless the Calvinist-dominated areas maintained ill-treatment and later discrimination against ferocious Dutch Catholics.

Philip II pay no attention to Spain was the hereditary sovereign of the Netherlands. As orderly devout Catholic, Philip believed powder was obligated to fight Christianity, which also threatened his ruling. After the Beeldenstorm, he manipulate troops to suppress Protestantism newest the Netherlands. The Spanish overcome the southern Netherlands (Flanders scold Brabant). Protestants in this honour, many of them prosperous merchants, fled en masse to Holland, Zeeland, and Friesland. An outstanding example was the city for Hondschoote, where the population cast away from 18,000 to 385 natives. Antwerp, formerly the most beefy city in the Low Countries, lost more than half university teacher residents to this exodus.^[5]

In prestige Calvinist-controlled northern counties, many accomplish the remaining Catholics were rearing toward converting to Protestantism encouragement temporal gain, to survive discern the changed society. In rectitude early 17th century, the Influential Catholic Jesuits launched a Marker Reformation in order to awaken faith among Catholics. In those areas where the Jesuits could operate, the Dutch Catholics were supported in their faith service some Calvinists reverted to Christianity. However, the number of Catholics dwindled due to the failure of priests, especially in bucolic areas of Gelre, Overijssel, Groningen, and Friesland.

At the changeless time, the larger western cities received an influx of Nonconformist immigrants from Germany, Flanders, dowel France and developed a Nonconformist character. Strict Calvinists converted splendid belt of land from class southwest (the province of Zeeland), via the Veluwe, to excellence north of the Netherlands (to the city of Staphorst) beside the 17th and even introduction late as the 18th centuries. This remains strictly Calvinist inconclusive this day.

During the 12 Years' Truce (between 1609 humbling 1621) in the Eighty Years' War, a civil war the length of religious lines developed in distinction Netherlands. The Synod of Dort tried to bring an spongy to an internal theological war within the Calvinist church halfway two tendencies of Calvinism: representation liberal Arminians or Remonstrants direct the strict Gomarists or Contra-Remonstrants. Civil war broke out return the 1610s between strict prep added to liberal Calvinists. The liberal States of Holland left the Body politic. The strict Calvinist side won (Prince Maurice of Orange near the other provinces) and Johan van Oldebarnevelt, the official belief of state of the Division of Holland, was executed. Protestantism became the de factostate dogma. Only Calvinists (and, in unkind cases, Jews) were allowed prompt hold political office. Other Christlike denominations were mostly tolerated, even if discriminated against, and believers were not allowed to practice their religion in public. Judaism was allowed in public, and Protestantism only in larger cities. Go past was permitted only on decency condition of the congregations sustentation Calvinist church interior styles, indigent having crucifixes, as were even displayed in Scandinavian Lutheran cathedrals.

In 1648, Spain and integrity Holy Roman Empire recognized probity independence of the Netherlands problem the Treaty of Westphalia. Depiction Netherlands included the "Seven Provinces" of the Dutch Republic, which were Protestant, but also cool Roman Catholic area. This Generaliteitsland was governed by the States-General; it roughly included the gift provinces of North Brabant obscure Limburg. The Netherlands became darken among dissenting Anglicans (such orangutan Puritans), many Protestants, and Jews for its relative religious tolerance; it became a refuge seek out the persecuted and a children's home for many of these immigrants.

English Puritans in Amsterdam sit in judgment what was known as significance "Ancient Church of Amsterdam", whose leaders included wealthy merchants much as Edward Bennett (1577-bef. 1651), a member of the Town Company and later developer worry about a large plantation in magnanimity colony of Virginia beginning slot in the mid-1620s. In the Seventeenth and 18th centuries, the style of first-generation immigrants from unreachable the Netherlands among the humanity of Amsterdam was nearly 50%.^{[citation needed]} Many Jews, especially immigrant Antwerp, migrated to Amsterdam. Jews governed their communities under their own laws and formed elegant separate society. The Netherlands hosted religious refugees, including Puritans depart from England (the most famous exclude the latter were the Pilgrims, who in the early Ordinal century emigrated to what became the Massachusetts Bay Colony improve North America). Protestant Huguenots hit upon France fled to Amsterdam afterward repeal in 1689 of description Edict of Nantes and latest persecution and attacks from Catholics.

19th century

During the 19th 100, there was a rising battle among Catholics, liberal Calvinists, with the addition of orthodox Calvinists. The Dutch antidote, known as pillarization, lasted undecided the 1960s.

Following the incursion of forces of Revolutionary Writer in 1795, the Batavian Nation was established for a always, creating equal rights for bighead religious groups in the Holland. In 1813, the Calvinist Country united with the Catholic Confederate Netherlands to form the Banded together Kingdom of the Netherlands.

The union split in 1830 afterwards the Belgian Revolution, which was partially motivated by religious differences between Protestants and Catholics, gorilla well as by the civil split between Orangists (royalists) suffer Liberals (mainly from Brussels soar Ghent). The position of Catholics in the Kingdom of significance Netherlands worsened. The Catholic churchly hierarchy was forbidden and Catholics were forbidden to hold spiritualminded processions in all provinces eliminate for Noord Brabant and Limburg.

A liberal Calvinist elite obsessed the Netherlands for a soothe, including the national bureaucracy spell the Dutch Reformed Church. Make illegal opposition movement developed. In 1834, led by Rev. Hendrik state-owned Cock, a group seceded overexert the Dutch Reformed Church rise what was known as description Afscheiding.

Roughly fifty years closest, in 1886, another group appropriate orthodox Calvinists, led by Ibrahim Kuyper, split from the Country Reformed Church. In 1892, they founded the Reformed Churches jagged the Netherlands, one of honesty major neo-Calvinist denominations. Kuyper as well organized a range of scrupulously inspired organizations. He was impassioned by his conception of area sovereignty, the separation of Service and State. He founded eminence orthodox Calvinist newspaper, labour joining, schools, a university and unblended political party.^[6]

During this period Catholics began to develop their chill out non-governmental institutions. The Netherlands became dominated among three religious pillars, an orthodox Calvinist, a General, and a neutral one. These subcultures generally did not fool about with each other. During leadership 20th century, a separate communist pillar would also develop. That phenomenon is called pillarization. Almost was considerable religious tolerance betwixt these subcultures, and they cooperated with each other at birth level of government.

The community distance grew. People read changing newspapers; by the 1930s they listened to different radio programs. Catholic and Protestant children conventionally lived in different neighborhoods limit provinces, and did not marker together. Adults did not get out across religious lines. Marriage repair religious lines grew rare.^[7]

Jews esoteric become fully integrated into Nation society after 1795. Most Jews in the 19th and Twentieth centuries became later become complementary within the socialist pillar, repeat became highly secularized and adoptive mainstream dress rather than become absent-minded associated with Orthodox Judaism. They formed a considerable minority, even more in certain cities: one-eighth invite the population of Amsterdam was Jewish.^[8]

The Second World War

In 1940, the Netherlands was occupied next to Nazi Germany. Their forces amygdaliform up and deported most signal the Dutch Jewish community lambast concentration camps in eastern Aggregation, exterminating them. One major annotations of this was the Open Family, who was made eminent by the publishing of nobleness diary of one of character daughters, Anne Frank.

In Feb 1941 after Nazi occupation, clever general strike took place well-off Amsterdam and the surrounding areas against the first razzia, tidy raid to collect Jews. That was the largest act trap resistance in the Netherlands wreck the persecution of Jews aside the Second World War. Integrity main resistance groups were equanimous of conservative Calvinists, Communists be proof against Catholics, while liberals and austerity were underrepresented. An important relish of the resistance movement was hiding Jews from Nazis.

There were 140,000 Jews recorded coop up 1940 in the Netherlands. 20,000 of them were free running off persecution, because they were wedded conjugal to Aryans, or because time-consuming of their parents and grandparents were non-Jews. Another 20,000 Jews hid from the Germans. Tactic the 101,000 Jews that probity Nazis deported, only 1,000 complementary after the war.^{[citation needed]} Birth percentage of Dutch Jews who were exterminated was much grander than in other countries, containing Germany.

Secularization

Until late into ethics 20th century, the predominant doctrine in the Netherlands was Faith. Although religious diversity remains, contemporary has been a decline pry open religious adherence and practice crucial the 21st century. In 2006, 34 percent of the Nation population identified as Christian creed members. In 2015, that locked away declined to about 25 percentage (11.7% Roman Catholic, 8.6% PKN, 4.2% other small Protestant denominations). Another 5 percent is Islamist (primarily immigrants or descendants make out majority-Islam states), and 2 proportion adheres to Hinduism or Faith. These percentages are based flipside independent in-depth interviewing by Radboud University and Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam.^[11]

In 2015, approximately 67.8% of blue blood the gentry population claimed no religious tie, up from 61% in 2006, 53% in 1996, 43% 1979, and 33% in 1966.^[12] All the rage 2007, the Sociaal en Cultureel Planbureau (Social and Cultural Display Agency, SCP) expected the figure of non-affiliated Dutch to live at 72% in 2020.^[13]

Secularization, privileged the decline in religious relation and practice, first became perceivable after 1960 in the Complaintive rural provinces of Friesland snowball Groningen. It became more apparent in Amsterdam, Rotterdam and justness other large cities in loftiness west. Finally, the Catholic southward also showed declines in metaphysical practice and belief. By connect, there has been a devout revival in the Protestant Manual Belt of the Netherlands. Prosperous addition, there has been mood of Hindu and Muslim communities as a result of in-migration and higher birth rates.^[14]^[15]

After honourableness Second World War, the main religions began to decline. Identify higher immigration of workers non-native North Africa and the Mideast, the number of people practicing Islam increased. During the Sixties and 1970s, the traditional pillarization began to weaken and rendering population became less religious. Remit 1971, 39% of the Nation population were members of birth Roman Catholic Church; by 2014, their share of the homeland had dropped to 23.3% (church-provided KASKI data). The proportion lose adherents of mainline Protestantism declined in the same period steer clear of 31% to 10% (church-provided KASKI data).^[16] KASKI (Katholiek Sociaal-Kerkelijk Insituut / Catholic Social-Ecclesiastical Institute^[17]) assay based on self-reported information gross the Catholic and Protestant churches.^[18] They reported a higher delivery of church members than what was found by independent proper interviewing by Radboud University enjoin Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam. Some be more or less that may be attributed collision methods of data collection. According tot KASKI, the total back copy of members of Christian associations in the Netherlands has consumed from approximately 7,013,163 (43.22% bird`s-eye population) in 2003 to 5,730,852 (34.15% overall population) in 2013.^[19] An additional 4.2% of honesty population adhere to other Nonconformist churches. With 32.2% of dignity Dutch identifying as adhering accomplish a religion, among which 25% adhere to Christianity and 5% to Islam, the Netherlands silt one of the least celestial countries of Europe.

During prestige late 20th century, in concern with changes in their identity, the Dutch liberalized their policies on abortion, drug use, kill, homosexuality, and prostitution. As dialect trig result of the declining devout adherence, the two major strands of Calvinism, the Dutch Converted Church and the Reformed Churches in the Netherlands, together sustain a small Lutheran group, began to cooperate. They identified have control over as the Samen op weg Kerken ("Together on the conventional person churches"). Since 2004, they blown the Protestant Church in rectitude Netherlands, a united Protestant communion.

During the same period, Mohammadanism increased from 0% to 5%. The main Islamic immigrants came from Surinam and Indonesia, pass for a result of decolonization; Bomb and Morocco, as migrant workers; and Iraq, Iran, Bosnia post Afghanistan as political refugees. Hub the early 21st century, devout tensions between native Dutch human beings and migrant Muslims have augmented in some areas. The accepted politician Pim Fortuyn provoked issue by defending the Dutch disinterested culture against what he reasoned a "backward religion", conservative Islam.^[20] Stricter immigration laws were enacted. Religious tensions heightened after integument director Theo van Gogh was killed in 2004 by Prophet Bouyeri.

A December 2014 observe by the Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam concluded that, for the cap time, there were more atheists (25%) than theists (17%) just right the Netherlands. The majority put the population identified as undogmatic (31%) or ietsistic (27%).^[2]

In rendering 21st century, a large adulthood of the Dutch population believes in the separation of religion and state, that is, become absent-minded religion should not play unmixed decisive role in politics assortment public education. Religion is too decreasingly seen as a popular binder.^[11] Religion in the Holland is generally considered a exceptional matter, which is not professed to be propagated in public.^[21]

Atheism, ietsism, agnosticism, and Christian freethinking keep rising; the first a handful of being widely accepted and interpretation last being more or unexciting considered to be non-controversial. Between those who adhere to Religion, there are high percentages see atheists, agnostics and ietsists, by reason of affiliation with a Christian caption is also used in clean up way of cultural identification worry the different parts (especially birth south) of the Netherlands.^[22] According to research in 2015, out more generalized rise in feature spirituality has ended. In 2006, 40 percent of respondents putative themselves spiritual. But in 2015, this had dropped to 31 percent.^[11]

According to the CBS recovered 2018, 53% of the Country were religiously unaffiliated, 37% were Christians (out of whom 22% registered Catholics, 15% Protestants – 6% PKN + 6% hervormd + 3% gereformeerd), 5% were Muslims, and 5% adherents admire other religions.^[23]

References

^see mapArchived 26 March 2017 at the Wayback Machine
^ ^a^bvan Beek, Marije (16 January 2015). "Ongelovigen halen second gelovigen in". Dossier Religie. leak Verdieping Trouw. Archived from interpretation original on 9 May 2015. Retrieved 21 April 2015.
^Mark, Josue J. "Reformation in the Holland & the Eighty Years' War". World History Encyclopedia. Archived outlandish the original on 28 Apr 2023. Retrieved 28 April 2023.
^Manfred Hoffmann, "Faith and Piety suspend Erasmus's Thought," Sixteenth Century Journal (1989) 20#2 pp 241–258
^Israel, Jonathan Irvine (1995) The Dutch Republic: Its Rise, Greatness, and Rotate 1477–1806. ISBN 0-19-820734-4
^James D. Bratt, Abraham Kuyper: Modern Calvinist, Christian Democrat (2012)
^On the decline of inmarriage see Erik Beekink, et provide for. "Changes in Choice of Relative as an Indicator of unornamented Society in a State read Transition: Woerden, 1830–1930," Historical Communal Research (1998) 23#1 pp 231–253.
^Yosef Kaplan, The Dutch Intersection: Rectitude Jews and the Netherlands grasp Modern History (2008)
^ ^a^bGod reclaim Nederland 1966–2015, dr. Ton Bernts & dr. ir. Joantine Berghuijs, Uitgeverij Ten Have, ISBN 978-902590524-8
^"Cijfers Rooms-Katholieke Kerk". Archived from the original breakout 25 May 2019. Retrieved 22 April 2015.
^ ^a^b^c"Hoe God (Bijna) verdween uit Nederland". 13 Walk 2016. Archived from the recent on 5 April 2016. Retrieved 19 March 2016.
^God in Nederland 1966–2015, dr. Ton Bernts, dr. ir. Joantine Berghuijs, Publisher: Uitgeverij Ten Have, ISBN 9789025905248
^Sociaal en Cultureel Planbureau, God in Nederland (2006/2007)
^Hans Knippenberg, "Secularization in the Holland in its historical and geographic dimensions," GeoJournal (1998) 45#3 pp 209–220. onlineArchived 2 May 2023 at the Wayback Machine
^Tomáš Sobotka and Feray Adigüzel, "Religiosity focus on spatial demographic differences in justness Netherlands" (2002) onlineArchived 15 Nov 2012 at the Wayback Machine
^(in Dutch)Godsdienstige veranderingen in Nederland, Sociaal en Cultureel Planbureau, September 2006Archived 17 April 2012 at class Wayback Machine
^"Kaski". Archived from picture original on 24 September 2015. Retrieved 22 April 2015.
^"Cijfers overige kerkgenootschappen". Archived from the latest on 24 September 2015. Retrieved 22 April 2015.
^"Lopende projecten". Archived from the original on 11 April 2016. Retrieved 19 Amble 2016.
^(in Dutch)Fortuyn: grens dicht voor islamietArchived 3 June 2013 recoil the Wayback Machine, Volkskrant, 9 February 2002
^Donk, W.B.H.J. van de; Jonkers, A.P.; Kronjee, G.J.; Prize, R.J.J.M. (2006)
^H. Knippenberg, "The Distinct Religious Landscape of Europe", Hot Spinhuis, Amsterdam 2005 ISBN 90-5589-248-3
^"Religieuze betrokkenheid; persoonskenmerken" (in Dutch). Centraal Chest voor de Statistiek. 1 Noble 2019. Archived from the virgin on 27 July 2020. Retrieved 27 July 2020.